Employee Theft

Explain the causalitying behind employee stealing. Employee theft could be a result of many issues that arise at the place of employment. Low esprit de corps at the workplace is a major reason why jobes arrest from low production and stealing at the workplace, especially if the employee expressions that the business or company has wronged or mistreated them in some counselling. Another reason would be if the employee observes that they be underpaid or under-appreciated for their performance. In sales, lack of control everywhere inventory makes it easier to steal be begin the employer does not have preventive measures to avoid it. preventive measures are crucial to reducing the risk of employee theft. If preventive measures are not existent then the opportunity to steal is very high. The best way to control employee theft is to curing policies and guidelines regarding the issue. If there are no set consequences to employee theft then employees allow continue to steal, becaus e they bring forward that they wont be punished. Explain ways the conclusion of our capitalistics society encourages attitudes like those Sheehy describes.I would say a culture of technological revolution and an ever expanding action-packed business world, along with an image shaped by a culture of pic games and action movies has definitely contributed to encouraging attitudes like those Sheehy describes. As it is tell in the text, The college students in particular, hatchs Sheehy, believed that a no- holds- barred, trample- over- anybody, stick- what you- emergency approach is the necessary and glamorous passage to success. This relates directly to the John Rawls notion of fairice as fairness.Rawls lists the following among the be basic liberties license of thought and liberty of conscience the political liberties and freedom of association, as well as the freedoms specified by the liberty and wholeness of the person and finally, the rights and liberties covered by the rule of law. This notion is characteristic of the capitalist society. There are many contributing factors surrounding employee theft. I think that the desire to steal is a direct result of your moral values. Sheehy stated, employee theft accounts for 50 percent more revenue loss for retailers than shoplifting.So whats causing the employees to steal? Some employees whitethorn steal because the opportunity presents itself, others may steal because its part of their DNA, and some may still because they feel that they may be underpaid therefore they are entitled to more and will compensate themselves. For example, I have a friend that was a supportt over Manager at Popeyes and she was recently fired for stealing funds. I asked her to rationalize her actions she stated that she was getting underpaid and was upset because the company recently hired a new Shift Manager with a higher salary.She also, stated that she was very flexible, worked long hours if needed, and always helped othe rs with their tasks and duties. Bottom line, she felt that the company did not value her hard work and dedication therefore she stole the money to even the score. She is now looking for a job and her unemployment was denied due to theft. I believe the employees that steals from their workplace, did not take time out to think near the consequences if their caught. In summary, the attitudes Sheehy shared in his report is evident in to the highest degree businesses today.Some people feel that they will do enough retributive to get by until something else comes along. Others may feel unappreciated and underpaid, which may cause them to steal from the company to make up the difference. The implications of the work ethics Sheehy account in the article will have a negative clash on future American businesses, which may cause businesses to close and an amplification in corporate fraud. If society does not change the attitudes, we will be a nation without purpose. Having strong work et hics and a expectation of judgement for the workforce/ environment will help shape our future.Would you report an overpayment to your manager or would you pocket the money if a customer forgot to get his/her change? As mentioned earlier, Sarah reported the overpayment to her manager and coincidently the customer returned bandaging to the store for her change 3 hours later. Sarah displayed a level of integrity and appreciation for her workplace. I believe we still have hope. Sheeny, J. (2010). A New civilize Ethic? In W. H. Shaw, Business Ethics (p. 164). http//www. ifpo. org/articlebank/employee_theft. html Explain the think behind employee theft.Sheehy reported that the number cause of employee theft is peer pressures, teenagers are been forced to steal in order to become part of the pack, they feel like they are not been compensated accordingly with their jobs to the nature of their jobs so they feel like it is their given right to get what is owed to them. Also because they can get away with it, it is hard to prove something when no one is instinctive to tell the truth because they all do it. Explain ways the culture of our capitalists society encourages attitudes like those Sheehy describes.People can actually do what they want to do, if you have a job that you hate, you will not be able-bodied to motivate yourself to perform the way you suppose to. On my email signature a work I have a quote formula find something you love to and you will never have to work over again a day in your life. It is important that your job should be a hobby, something you are willing to do even if you are not getting paid, but the economy is causing for more people just to take any kind of job in order to live on even if they hate what they are doing.

Creating Web-Based Instructional Materials Essay

INTRODUCTION The World Wide Web (WWW) is changing the way we retard and the way we teach. Teaching has embraced the innovative ways that WWW give the bounce wisecrack to substance abusers. WWW allows dynamic and interactive ways of teaching things which are unrealizable on printed fabrics. There are on-line courses, on-line tutorials and virtual classrooms. The gravestone to the success of these teaching institutions that proliferated in the web are the effective instructional materials. WBT is media-rich training fully capable of evaluation, adaptation, and remediation that dirty dog provide the operable tools to organize and deliver cognitive message into well-crafted teaching systems (Tobin & Kesselman, 1999).PURPOSE The purpose of this put down is to create a general guideline in creating web ground instruction materials. The document volition take into consideration the methods that are well-known(prenominal) to the author.GUIDELINESGeneral StepsThe general tints in making web- found instructional materials consist of the followers (Clay, Harlan & Swanson, 1997)Determining the join competencies to be included the instructional materialDetermine the contents of the instructional material base on the core competencies selected.Deciding the method or strategy used to stupefy to the users the ideas presented.Developing the instructional material as a word accomplish document, an audio or a video material.Mounting or up committal the material into the webProviding the feedback portal for usersBeta scrutinyFinal Modification based on feedback, retest and releaseDetermining the core competenciesThe very(prenominal) first grade is deciding the target core competencies for this instruction material. For example, this instruction material whitethorn be intended to teach Basic Algebra, Earth Science or Differential Calculus. This will serve as the goal of the web-based instruction material. The purpose of the web-based instruction material i s to transfer the core competencies from the instruction material to the user. cerebrate and visiting existing web based instructional materials are close ways of finding the core competencies.Determining the content After the core competency has been decided, the next step is to produce a structured content. The content should start from the basic principles of the core competencies towards the complicated areas. The structure therefore should be laid out in much(prenominal) a way that it will start from the least difficult to understand to the most difficult to understand. The content formatting should also take into account that the pre-requisite topics should be place ahead. This factor that for the contents that is needed to understand another set of content, should be situated ahead.Deciding the method or strategyThe method of presentation should be planned before proceeding to the actual culture of the material. The method should be based on the target audience of the i nstructional material. It should be based on the comprehension level of the audience. Novice audience should be given up methods that are scant(p) to comprehend such as more fleshs than words. bright audiences may be presented with more literals than images to maximize the amount of information. Interactive items such as graphs made apply whatsoever Flash or coffee berry applet technologies should also be considered to convey the relationship between varying variables which can controlled by the user or audience.Developing the Instructional satisfyingThe development of the instructional material shall be done in the software program that handles edit of html files or more complex file formats. HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and Cascading air Sheets (CSS) are the format of choice as opposed to adobe printable document format (PDF) or word document format. HTML would be more flexible to incorporate interactive objects such as coffee berry applets or Flash Animations. It is the fastest in terms of page loading in the web. The presentation editor program software may consist of the followingMicrosoft FrontPageMicrosoft Word with the proper HTML conversion plugInsHTMLkitMacromedia FlashAdobe Photoshop different HTML editors and there a thousand available free software in the webAt the start, images, interactive applets, video clips, audio clips, or animated gifs shall be fain ahead utilise the grab software. fine art should help to convey information and not just be ornamental each page should have a clear title and includes headers and footers (Tobin & Kesselman, 1999). Pictures can be scanned development a scanner to convert into images in jpg, gif, png or bmp format. The other alternative is to take pictures forthwith using digital cameras. goggle box clips can be created using digital cameras with video streaming, or using other digital video record-keepers. Images can be edited using either paint, Microsoft photo editor or more complex i mage editing tools such as Adobe Photoshop.Interactive applets can be generated using Java Development Kit which can be freely downloaded from the web. In order to be able to run java applets the user PC should have Java Runtime Environment to run java applets, once more this can be downloaded for free from the web. Video clips can be prepared using Windows Movie Maker. Animated gifs can be prepared using a issue forth of software free or commercial. These are consequently integrated into the html file using an html document editor such Microsoft Front Page or HTMLKit. We also need the appropriate sound card and speakers to listen to the audio materials included in the presentation. A summary of all the hardware needed to create instructional materials mentioned in a higher place are listed belowPC with Linux or Windows Operating Systemelectronic scanner to digitize printed pictures and imagesDigital CameraDigital Video recordersPrintersFlash harrow or Pen DrivesSound Card and S peakerMounting the Material into the Web The html files can then be uploaded into the website using either ftp upload or simply using the available upload managers normally provided by web hosting companies. Documents can be linked directly to the directories of the linking page.One of the main aspects when mounting materials into the web is to keep material size of it to minimum. This would help in the uploading process and also in the loading process of the users. We had to think in terms of kilobyte file sizes, not megabytes be cook tar over the Web is too slow to expect users to wait slightly at your web site for large graphics to appear on their screens (Clay, Harlan & Swanson, 1997). This is because we have to consider that there are still a number of users who are using modems as slow as 28.8 kbps.Providing Feedback Portals Feedback portals, or any form or method that would allow users to provide feedback is a very important part of a web-based instruction material. This will provide an easy way to evaluate, test or improve using feedback from users.Beta Testing In any form of development, testing is always an integral part. By going through all the possible paths of the web-based instruction material and testing every possible path is essential to insure proper cognitive operation of the instruction material. This may also include testing on dissimilar web browser tools. Different web browser tools may cause some degree of difference in the presentation of html files. This step also includes proofreading of the entire material. Any bugs, errors or unwanted features shall be recorder for modification or correction.Final Modification based on Testing, Retest and pocketAfter the beta testing, the errors shall be corrected and retested until no errors persist. Finally, it shall then be released with a proper version control.ReferencesClay, S. Harlan, S. and Swanson, J. (1997). Continuing Web Education. Retrieved from the USCB Library website http/ /www.library.ucsb.edu/ creative activity/clay.html, on January 16, 2007Tobin, T. and Kesselman, M, (1999). Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Research. Retrieved from the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions website http//www.ifla.org/IV/ifla65/papers/102-163e.htmJanuary 17, 2007

Motion Sickness In Naval Environment Health And Social Care Essay

The intent of this topic is to find a sensible barr term to pull wrap uping gesticulate unwellness in Canadian marine forces.Management of intercommunicate inauspiciousness in a oceanic surroundings is re every(preno minuteal)y of import. The coming of new engineering, assorted sexual activity, multi heathen, and sm whollyer cabal sizes hateful that the do of question disorder on the crew straight affects the boot capableness of a modern fight vessel.The pathophysiology of mal de mer and app arnt movement infirmity in general the Great Compromiser ill understood. In general, gesture disorder is prospect to be a miscommunication and loathsome mismatch syndrome. This poster does non to the full give voice why w spindleiness occurs in concurrence with gesture unwellness or why gesture illness is so variable in divers(prenominal) individuals under the same conditions. ocean affection can be efficaciously managed utilizing combinations of meltspace alteration, non- prescription treat drugs, prescription drugs, and addiction. There is no 1 combination that is universally sound even so there is a demand for the practician to hold a dear thought process of when to modify a intervention mode for a unusual sea province or affected roles demands.IntroductionModern ships and smaller crews throw away a bun in the oven a spunky impact when the crew is unable to execute introductory and complex maps when they operate helpless due to gesture illness. Any cardinal who has of all time treated a patient who is actively or inveterate airsick can sympathise with the patient effect that they would wish to decease so the mal de mer would travel off. In the Canadian Navy a patient needs to show a history of chronic mal de mer in order to be moved to a new alternate and considered to be for darling unfit for ocean service. This more than is non d wiz until the member has been to the full trained and can take cardinal to three old ages of shrouding to happen ensuing in a great trade of wretchedness for the patient and a big put in work, preparation, and money on the portion of the Canadian Forces.The intent of this paper is to reexamine the pathophysiology of gesture illness and depict an crusade based ack-ack to the attention of mal de mer utilizing both pharmacological and non pharmacologically based interventions presently in stock(predicate) to CF Health operate Personnel. It entrust in any event briefly research ergonomic alterations to alleviate the symptoms of cause Sickness.With the coming of modern ship design, crew composing has evolved to hold a couple of(prenominal)er and really extremely specialised forces trustworthy for runing the battle political program of today. For illustration, during World War II the crew of a F tricksterate had 141 forces ( 1 ) who were responsible for the safe operation of the ship. The WWII frigate had half the supplanting and utter closely less than half the capableness and engineering of a modern war vessel of a similar category. The crews were all priapic and chiefly Caucasian.In 2010 a Canadian Patrol Frigate with a supplanting of 5235 dozenss has a nominal crew of 180 with 45 transeunt forces for a sum of 225 who argon responsible for the care and operation of the war vessel ( 2 ) . Motion illness can impact anyplace from 1 % to 100 % of a crew depending on conditions and the status of the water surface they travel on. The much smaller crew who are critical to the oversight of combat, ego defence, and disembodied spirit support systems become helpless and the whole system of a combat platform is affected. ( Find impact of mal de mer on contending levelheadedness in member )The bulk of the literature discusses the direction of gesture illness in the context of use of short pictorial matters such as sail ship travel, air travel, and blank travel.Pathophysiology of gesture illnessArgwal et Al ( 2003 ) . , late reiterated t hat gesture illness still body ailing understood but is still by and king-sized thought to be ca utilize by nervous input mismatch ( 3 ) . It is besides the place of this generator that some of the symptoms of gesture illness can non be explained to the full by this place. For illustration why does gesture illness minute in affection and regurgitation and non some other(a) symptoms alternatively? This account besides fails to explicate specifically why gesture illness causes sleepiness. at any rate it fails to explicate the variableness surrounded by different topics allergicness to gesture illness under similar fortunes.Definition of mal de mer naupathia is customaryly described as a feeling of sickness, tummy consciousness, and unwell while on or in H2O both fresh and salt H2O. This type of gesture illness is considered to be a normal response to the perceptual experience of gesture whether the gesture is existent or non. For illustration, a individual can go ill on the span of a ship in unsmooth sea or while utilizing a stationary simulator with traveling images on a picture masking even though their organic structure and the platform they are standing on is non traveling.Mal de debarquement SyndromeMal de debarquement Syndrome ( MdDS ) is deserving brief treatment in this paper as it is a status that affects people who have been open to gesture illness arousing stimulations yet they still have gesture illness symptoms by and by remotion of the stimulation. It has deductions in the context of a naval surroundings as it seems to commonly affect in-between age people ( 4 ) ( 5 ) and can be rather enfeebling. CF Health Services Staff whitethorn be presented with patients showing with MdDS given our aging cure population, and troubles bring forthing staff for ships ensuing in the custom of more shoring up based replacement staff particularly in the back uping trade functions. Some of the older members of the crew of a modern ship whitethorn b e at hazard for MdDS. The symptoms of MdDS that concern clinicians chiefly are non the casual symptoms that are common for the initial few yearss on land after a immense sail as described by YH Cha et Al ( 4 ) and Gordon et Al ( 6 ) .Patients with MdDS typically present chiefly with a relentless esthesis of gesture after several yearss removal from a gesture that would normally arouse gesture illness ( 4 ) . Other symptoms may overwhelm concerns and sensitiveness to ocular gesture. The symptoms can last from a few hebdomads to many old ages. Fact-finding testing and rating do non put out any physical causative factor to explicate the symptoms of the patient ( 4 ) .Death from mal de mer? one history of decease from mal de mer in oil rig catastropheQuestions to be posedWhat are the physiological effects of purification and mal de mer?What are the effects of declare mal de mer on operators of confuse machinery?What is the closely efficacious manner to handle gesture illness on a naval ship?Divers in a hyperbaric chamber at sea. air crew at sea.Aircrew?Divers?Ships Crew?Describe the differences between Sea and air and gesture illness.Cruise ship stabilisation methods, ship design, adult male factors.Mythbusters section on gesture illness.TreatmentsDrug Treatments presently in practice session in the CF ( 7 )The CF Formulary contains the fol drugs that are indicated in the direction of Motion illness.GravolMany readyings availCommon prescription for direction of mal de merBonamineMeclazine HCL is used. Its monograph provinces in indicants for the usage in the intervention of XXXXX. It was constitute anecdotally by the writer that it is frequently used and positivistic falsely as one launching pad twice daily instead than the sanctioned one to two tablets one time daily in the monograph in some surveies it was besides prescribed as XXXX.Reappraisal of the LiteratureA reappraisal of the literature was done to reply some basic inquiries that would be worthy to explicating an attack to pull offing mal de mer in a naval environment.Can you decease from mal de mer?one decease has beenDoes degree of physical fitness have an impact on gesture illness?Curiously, topics with high degrees of oxidative fitness study less symptoms of gesture illness but have higher rates of patterned advance to purging than topics with lower aerophilic fittingness degrees ( 8 ) . Cheung et Al. ( 9 ) looked at why and reason that allowance account to vestibular gesture decreases as aerophilic fittingness additions.Does ethnicity or sex have an consequence on gesture illness?It is by and large thought that ethnicity and gender may hold an impact on an somebody s gesture illness sensitiveness.Klosterhalfen et al. , studied the consequence of ethnicity and gender on gesture illness susceptibleness ( 10 ) . Specifically they looked at whether gender and cultural ethnicity are interacting. 227 Caucasic and 82 topics of Chinese beginning, both male and fema le were exposed to nausea bring oning organic structure traffic circle motions in a rotary converter motion chair. They experienced louvre exposures of 1 min each with 1 min breaks between exposures. They were instructed to shut their eyeball and travel their caputs up and down every 6 seconds by an audiotape. Campaigners could get around at any coif and the entire rotary motion clip was noted. Prior to rotary motion, topics were instructed to make full out a question Sickness Susceptibility Questionnaire ( MSSQ ) . Individual symptom evaluations were performed at the beginning and lowest of exposure and 15 and 30 min subsequently. The consequences of the hatful indicated that the mean rotary motion clip was higher in Caucasic than in Chinese topics. It besides indicated that the rotary motion clip could be predicted from the MSSQ information. The decision of the analyze is that gesture illness susceptibleness is affected by both cultural beginning and by gender in a compl ex manner. The most dependable anticipation of rotary motion could be based on the person s history as assessed by the MSSQ.JE Bos et Al ( 11 ) . observed in the literature that females were 1.4 to 1.7 times more susceptible sea illness and found similar rates in the other manners of transit. They found merely 3 studies contradictory of the consequences of the surveies reviewed. After a reappraisal of the ferry and sail ship informations in their survey they concluded that gender has an impact on a individuals susceptibleness to seasickness.Talk intimately the Singapore navy testWhat is the impact of ship design on gesture illness?Dobie ( 12 ) looked at the design of ships and how worlds interact with their sophisticated systems. whole organic structure quiver, gesture induced weariness and noise all affect the organic structure and lessening effectivity in a complex machine. He concluded that the human component must be considered in the design of ships at an early phase in the p rocedure. The vas should be considered to be a person-machine that operates as a system and levelheaded design make an effectual system.Can desensitization minimise effects of gesture illness?What drugs could be used to minimise the effects of mal de mer?There have been many surveies of the medicines that could be used to pull off gestures sickness. This paper will look at the 1s that are avai science laboratoryle in Canada. Of note one of the more studied 1 ( 13 ) ( 14 ) ( 15 ) is dextroamphetamine ( used for enormous symptoms ) and it is non indicated for usage in the direction of gesture illness but shows a batch of promise for terrible symptoms.one field survey on the effectivity of anti-motion illness drugs ( 16 ) found that hyoscine, Antivert, Dramamine, and accupressure in order of effectivity helped riders on a sail from Argentina to the Antarctic Peninsula. Again the exposure was merely 3 yearss but the conditions was terrible ( gale force air catamenias with 9m crestl ess waves ) .What medicines are operable to battle gesture illness in the CF pharmacopeia?DimenhydrinateMeclizineScopalamineDextroamphetamine utilize of scopalamineSchupak et al. , studied the long term effects of transdermic hyoscine ( Transderm-V ) to measure its long term effectivity in the bar of mal de mer ( 17 ) . 68 healthy male crew members age 18 to 20 were given a scopolamine spot ogdoad hours sooner each seafaring. Two espy were applied per hebdomad with an musical interval of 24 hours before application of a new spot every 72 hours. Checkups were made every three months over a occlusion of three old ages. The mean seasickness badness ( on a graduated table of 0 to 7 ) after six months at sea prior to the spot was 5.64, as compared to 3.14 station application. Significant betterment was besides found in ego evaluated semipublic intro at sea while utilizing the spot. Contact dermatitis prevented the usage of transdermic hyoscine in 3 ( 4.4 % ) subjects. The lone o ther essential side consequence was waterlessness of the mucose membranes. The entire figure of yearss the topics had been have oning the spot is non mentioned. The writers concluded that transdermic hyoscine was effectual in the bar of mal de mer and betterment of public presentation at sea during three old ages of followup, everyday application is non modify either by terrible side effects by public presentation perturbations.How long can you utilize the spot? cite Israeli defense forceSingapore navy tests at sea for scop.Use of ondan disciplineronHerskovitz et al. , studied ondansetron for the bar of mal de mer in susceptible crewmans ( 18 ) . 16 voluntaries with normal physical test findings and no old history of interior ear disease or dizziness took portion in a double-blind randomised crossing over survey. The participants practiced computerize public presentation trials until the consequences were stabilized. Ondansetron 8 magnesium or placebo was administered two hours before sailing aboard a 500 ton naval vas in mild sea conditions. Participants did public presentation testing and completed a questionnaire measuring their illness symptoms four hours into the ocean trip. The consequence was that there was no statistically important decrease of mal de mer symptoms between the drug intervention and placebo. The decision of this survey is that ondansetron was non found to be good in the intervention of mal de mer.Non medicative interventionsAcupressure and acustimulationmilling machine and Muth examined the efficacy of G-Jo and acustimulation for the bar of gesture illness ( 19 ) . Their survey used the Accubanda? and ReliefBanda? G-Jo and acustimulation device to excite the Neiguan ( P6 ) stylostixis point. Their topics were assigned to one of five groups Accubanda? trained or untrained ReliefBanda? trained or untrained or placebo. Subjects were exposed to 20 min service line period and 20 min of optokinetic membranophone rotary motion. The untra ined topics read the device waies used as they felt appropriate so completed a serviceability abbreviation after membranophone exposure. Trained topics read the device waies and so were trained to utilize device and so had their exposures. The topic symptoms and stomachic myoelectric activity were monitored during the baseline and membranophone rotary motion periods. There were 77 topics, 19 work forces and 61 adult females, runing from the 18 to 27 old ages of age. In this survey the symptoms of gesture illness and stomachic myoelectric activity increased in all groups taking the research workers to reason that the lone existent difference between conditions was a hold in oncoming of symptoms for ReliefBanda? compared to Accubanda? .This survey demonstrated that no G-Jo, acustimulation, or placebo intervention eliminated the symptoms of gesture illness. The ReliefBanda? while potentially detaining the symptoms would merely be good for short periods of clip if at all. This research was conducted in the lab and non a shipboard environment over an drawn-out period of clip.Bertolucci et Al. conducted in oceangoing survey with a low group of nine voluntaries off the seashore of San Francisco Bay ( 20 ) . Their decision was that gesture illness symptoms were conquer by the usage of an acustimulation device. His group size was little and needs to be demonstrated with the larger group.GingerErgonomic alterationsPositioning of watchkeeping StationssChair constitutionArtificial skylinesINTRAVENOUS TherapyDiscussionColwell ( 21 ) identified five human factors applied science rules in the direction of gesture illness 1. Locate critical Stationss around the ship s effectual centre of rotary motion 2. smear caput motions 3. Align operators with a rule axis of the ship s hull 4. Avoid uniting provocative beginnings and5. Supply and external mannequin of mention. Head motion in concurrence with gesture contributes to gesticulate sickness esthesis as can be demonst rated by the surveies performed by Miller ( 19 ) , Cheung et Al ( 22 ) , and others. If this is the instance so more much used proctors and input devices should be placed in forepart of watchkeepers so that vigorous caput motions need non be employed to keep effectual watchkeeping. Besides by adding a high backed chair with a head restraint you have the extra input of the skin inward-moving border of the dorsum of the chair and caput to assist antagonize the nervous input mismatch.If nervous input mismatch contributes significantly to gesture illness symptomology ( 3 ) ( 2 ) it seems that it would be sensible to add stimulations that would assist screen out the mismatch . For illustration, on modern war vessels everything is tied, bolted down, or other secured so that it does non travel. This is to forestall harm or hurt from motion at an inopportune clip such as an detonation or terminal maneuvering. This besides leads to no ocular stimulation of motion for the crew thereby increasing input mismatch. Addition of unreal skylines within the field of fantasy of the crew has the possible to minimise this consequence. These could be a simple as a twine with a weight on it or a balance beam ( unreal skyline ) with subdued illuming on it.This is an plain that could be studied in more deepnessThe literature on the usage of ginger for gesture illness is mixedas to it s efficaciousness for sickness and tummy consciousness . There does non look to be a good survey that would compare the effectivity of ginger on the type of terrible, long term exposure to gesture that would formalize ginger as an effectual gesture illness counterpoison for naval personel. It would be interesting to set together a proper test in a true to life(predicate) environment and set this issue to rest for naval forces.DecisionSeasickness and related gesture provoked unwellness are a complicated issue that requires effectual direction in the face of assorted gender, multiethnic, little crew sizes on modern Canadian war vessels.Seasickness has been looked at extensively in the context of comparatively short exposures both on land in the lab environment, and at sea. More work remains to be done on the folgather grounds of efficaciousness of medicines used to pull off MSickness in the field.gather grounds of efficaciousness of desensitisation as a direction tool in the field boldness at the efficaciousness of unreal skylines in work Stationss.Given the grounds presented in the literature, it is likely that the undermentioned protocol would be an effectual program to pull off a patient with mal de mer on a naval shipa. patient straightawayadayss with known gesture illness history.1 usage gravol xx milligram twenty hours prior to exposure. keepMild moderate terribleManagement of mal de mer demands to take into history the sea province, the length of the needful exposure to gesture, the badness of unwellness in the patient and the occupations they are involve to ex ecute as portion of their responsibilities at sea.Pharmaceutical direction of mal de mer demands to include the disposal of an appropriate anti emetic good in board of exposure when possible, so that the drug is absorbed before the subsequent emesis prevents equal soaking up of medicine to forestall the more terrible symptoms of mal de mer. Figure 1 lists the medicines available to practicians in the CF.Combination of medicine is indicated when one medicine entirely fails to command symptoms adequately.The hyoscine readyings are the normal by which most anti gesture illness medicines are evaluated against. virtually surveies involved in measuring medicines for forestalling seasickness include a scopolamine readying of some kind. Scopolamine spots used by the Canadian Forces need to be applied right and proper hired man rinsing completed after application to forestall inadvertent contact with conjunctiva and the end point blurry vision and uncomfortableness to the patient. Scop olamine spots may be used efficaciously for long periods of clip ( 17 ) ( 23 ) but should be discontinued when possible to let the patient to use to gesture. When utilizing spots for long periods of clip it is sensible to wait 24hrs before using a new spot ( 17 ) and sites should be rotate between L and R mastoid procedure.More research is required to measure direction of gesture illness with respect to assorted gender, multi-ethnic crews, with long gesture exposures on naval ships. The bulk of information in the literature associating to female mal de mer is based on retrospective questionnaire based surveies of sail ship riders on reasonably short sails.It would be interesting and valuable to look at a survey of the impact of mal de mer on ponder/mission public presentation of the smaller Maritime Coastal exoneration Vessel ( MCDV ) Fleets and the larger Patrol Frigates ( CPF ) and Destroyer Fleets on both seashores now that the crews of all these fleets are much more diverse t han the last clip this was looked at by Colwell in 1989 ( 21 ) .How does Mal de debarquement syndrome tantrum into the gesture illness spectrum?Cha ( 4 ) , and Parker ( 5 ) took a retrospective expression at instances of MdD in an effort to quantify its natual history and clinical characteristics ( 4 ) and suggest a class of intervention to get down with ( 5 ) .Notes Cha ( 4 ) 64 patients in the survey basically normal test and trials-boat travel the most common trigger ( 81 % of instances looked at )-median age at first onslaught was 38yo and 75 % were femaleFigure 1 Drugs available in CF H Svc Formulary ( 7 ) shown to be effecive in the direction of Motion Sickness.DrugDrug Identification Number ( DIN ) era interval required prior to exposureRecommended dosageDose absolute frequencyNotesDoseDextroamphetamine 2 5mg000019245161-2 hour5-10 milligramq 4-6 HParticular legislation required through CFDEC 3 10mg0000192455915mg00001924567Dimenhydrinate1-2 hour50-100 milligramq 4-6 HMult iple readyings availMeclizine25mg002204422 hour25-50 milligramq 6-24hWhen current supply depleted will no longer be available/manufactured for CanadaPromethazine25mg/ml inj000005751781.5 2 hour25 milligramq 4-6 hour25mg unwritten00000575178Scopolamine Patch1.5mg ( 1 milligram delivered over three yearss ( 24 ) )8 hourOne spot fanny earChange every 72 hourTransDerm V

Globalization and Production Essay

This discussion will weave together the details musical accompaniment the claim that globoseisation has been detrimental in at least quaternary distinct ways to the global community. In particular, the interests of reducing churn be for multinational merged entities by operating in the developing sports stadium has driven a pointed ambition to undermine both labor rights and environmental protections in developing nations. In addition to these two concrete and present(prenominal) effects of globalization, thither argon also negative effects on the economies from which much(prenominal) corporations originate.Such aggressive drop trade pursuant nations as the join States have seen a wholesale transplanting of production and dish up positions, bearing a retractionary impact on the domestic and local economies. A four-spotth impact of globalization in its current form is the imbue of pagan hegemony, with nations such as the above-noted United States exporting its cultura l c erstwhileits of consumerism and seat of governmentist democracy in the interests of disseminating its way of life.This has had negative effectives both on the cultural preservation and autonomy of domestic populations but has also helped to stimulate general resentment, resistance and even outright aggression against the forces of globalization an its leading advocates. These four particularors as those which have most accelerated the tangible impact of free trade and production across the last two decades. The discussion here engages an array of scholastic sources in reinforcing these grievances, with the ultimate outcome being a set of recommendations for how to evade these issues.In a pair of articles from Harley Shaiken and a textual matter by Jagdish Bhagwati, we are presented with a nuanced range of perspectives on the globalization debate. With the enterprise of free trade passages between the developed and developing world, our global scotchal alignment is comin g to reflect a divided pursuit of incarnate come aboutment which bears a byproduct of considerable detriment to a across-the-board range of parties. Still, in both, we are offered suggested means through which to cleanse the path of globalization.Shaiken takes as a clear point of view in severally of his essays an endorsement of labor unions as a means through which to advance worker skills and competitive, equitable employment wages. In an account from 2000 entitled fix and the bodied nature of skill, he draws the conclusion that the diminished emphasis on the acquisition of labor skills that are informed by the socio-cultural context of their mean product marketplace is reducing the performance and production quality yielded by workers.This is curiously true of manufacturing sites where advanced technological processes are utilized, with global outsourcing remote removing workers from the site of the new technologys evolution. This necessitates a change in the labor spe cialization within the the Statesn economy, with the reorganization of our production component to combat a fierce world-wide competition for jobs which threatens to undercut wages and working(a) conditions. (Shaiken, 2004 1) We have been ill-informed on the realities of globalization though, preventing any proper channeling of its interests. Of the premises which range together the articles in question, the most compelling and forthright representation of globalization may well be captured in the words of progressive livestock speculator and philanthropist George Soros, who observed that the salient features of globalization is that it allows the financial capital to move around freely, by contrast, the movement of the people remains firmly regulation. (Shaiken, 2004 3) This is particularly true of socioeconomic mobility, which is evidently supplanted in a globalizing market by the extension of wealth for the economically elite and a coinciding widening of the gap between rich and poor. Such a closure points to a fundamental aspect of contention in the discussion of globalization, which these articles ultimately converge to characterize as a duplicitous form of corporate imperialism that is conducive of exploitation, violence and cultural genocide rather than of a collective advancement in the standards of living and governance.In spite of this, we are attached cause to believe there may yet be a suitable implementation of globalization. The pace at which globalization advances social agendas study not be accepted as satisfactory. (Bhagwati, 33) We may hold Shaikens decidedly critical stance on globalization up to the light whatever of such a sentiment, and in doing so, we may find that in fact his is a rather positive approach to the subject matter. A ordinary theme in Jagdish Bhagwatis In Defense of Globalization is that the public presentation of globalization has been its biggest shortcoming.With the proper accommodation of labor changes in t he United States, these deeds come together to indicate that there is no way to abate the opening of free markets. We essential learn to adapt to its varied consequences. In his 2005 book, Three Billion New Capitalists, Clyde Prestowitz offers a scathing analysis of globalization, especially as it has been executed by the United States. He remarks upon its interest in expanding its markets to the global community as contradicting its current stature as the rife force in the world economy.By shifting much of its production overseas, the United States helped to provide a path for the corporate entity to undertake a more cost-effective operation, not effected by labor costs, labor protections and environmental standards present in the United States. Even as this serves to improve profit margins, it also began to produce a trend of declining job approachability which, with a growing proliferation of technological and scientific capabilities in a global setting has produced a simila r decline in the value of the American programming, technology or communications specialist.This is a single element of a vicious cycle in which rising education costs are no longer congruent with available job opportunities or put up scales. This, in turn, is reducing the value and, consequently the quality of Americas educational institutions. Prestowitz laments this in compliment to his concern over Americas unwillingness to invest in new technologies and scientific endeavors.Author Jagdish Bhagwati offers some insight into this conversation with his book, In Defense of Globalization, where he determines that the corruption of such institutions as the World Trade Organization has contributed to a general imbecility for the proper execution of free trade. Indeed, the pressure committed by the United States to direct the WTO towards adoption of its interests is backfiring, with its failure to protect its stimulate jobs, markets and investments resulting in an America trading at an incredible deficit to the rest of the world.Ultimately, Prestowitz has composed a text dedicated to articulating the ways in which this condition has resulted from globalization and providing uncontaminating warning of the eventual consequences which will arise there from if the United States does not make the appropriate changes to its policy approach. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States nearly immediately began to pursue an approach of free trade proliferation which could extend its capitalist values throughout the developed and developing world.It was seen as an opportunity to be seized, with a vacuum of power in so many theatres generate a need for some economic and socio-political direction. However, almost two decades hence, it must be conceded that the United States has executed an approach to globalization that is at once alienating to poor people throughout the developing world and to its own laborers. Globalization, it becomes apparent in Clyde Prestowitzs 2005 text, Three Billion New Capitalists The large Shift of Wealth and Power to the East, has become a path to American corporate dominance and has yet produced a trend of apparent U. S. economic decline.

Mental Workload Assessment

We all feel nid utilize out and strained when we have diddle to do. non only that, we experience situations like this even if we argon unspoilt studying. More often, we feel pressured just by thinking the amount of exams to be prepargond for, or for that next project that is necessary for a darling promotion in the company.Mental work freight is the right term for the stress and strain we experience, especially with regards to studying and working. The Hanover College defines intellectual workload as the whole t unity of moral exertion or the level of use of the human hustlers restrict resources (n.d.). In short, intellectual workload is a demand placed upon gentlemans gentleman (Xiaoli, n.d.).When there is too a lot intellectual workload, it might lead to errors. Preventing this makes mental workload important to be understood. However, callable to the many positionors that mustiness be considered in discussing mental workload, defining it becomes difficult.Menta l workload is important in driving and aviation and design. In fact, most of the studies conducted about mental workload were about driving and aviation and task demands. This is perhaps due to the fact that a number one wood is required to do non just one but many tasks. Moreover, even though a driver is experienced, accidents mum occur.De Waard (1996) conducted a study on mental workload among drivers. He give tongue to that driving a car looks like a pretty unproblematic task for everyone. Driving schools provide comprehensive lessons and manuals on how to drive safely. provided no matter how good a driver foot be, accidents cannot be avoided. Moreover, these accidents are attributed to human failure. Human failure is still amplifyd due to several factors. starting time is the increasing number of vehicles on the road. There is a demand on the human development processing system, and also incr palliate in the likelihood of vehicles colliding.Second, people drive well in to old age. However, older people tend to suffer from problems in terms of divided circumspection writ of execution. It all started with the car radio, and then car phones and other technological devices. The driver must divide his attention to all these systems besides controlling the vehicle. Lastly, those drivers in a diminished state may endanger him. Most of the time, drivers enclothe out at night for the longer journeys to avoid traffic. Driving at night can cause him sleepiness and fatigue. Aside from this, the driver can also be intoxicated (de Waard, 1996).Xiaoli (n.d.) presented the factors which affect driver workload, including the following fatigue, monotony, tranquillizing drugs and alcohol. Environmental factors also affect drivers, such as traffic demands, automation and road environment demands.There are different techniques in assessing mental workload, including the following performance measures, physiological measures, and congenital task measures (or se lf-report measures) (Luximon & Goonetilleke, 2001). Primary and second-string task measures comprise the performance, or system output measures. An overview of each legal opinion technique will be discussed in the context of traffic research (driving or aviation).Performance MeasuresIn Xiaolis (n.d.) slide presentation, he utter that the measures usually belonging to this category are speed of performance, number of errors make and reaction time measures. Outside the laboratory, these become task-specific. De Waard (1996) say that most of primary-task measures let in speed or accuracy measures.Aside from this, De Waard (1996) explained that primary-task performance establishes the efficiency of man-machine interaction. not just the primary-task performance but also other workload measures must work together so that valid conclusions can be worn-out about man-machine interaction.There are several snugglees in the measurement of performance measures. First is the analytical wo o (Meshkati, Hancock, Rahimi and Dawes, 1995). According to Welford (1978, cited in Meshkati, Hancock, Rahimi and Dawes, 1995), the analytical approach considers the detail at the actual performance of the task that will be assessed. Not only the overall achievement is examined but also the sort in which it is achieved. Another assessment technique is the synthetic methods.These start with a task analysis of the system. Task analytic procedures are then used to identify the specific performance demands placed on the promoter. The third approach is the multiple measurement of primary task performance. This approach is very utile when individual measures of primary task performance do not ground enough sensitivity to operator workload.On the other hand, Xiaoli (n.d.) indicated that secondary-task performance are about factors such as time estimation or time-interval return and memory-search tasks. The assumption associated with secondary task measure says that an upper limit exis ts on the ability of a human operator to gather and process knowledge (Meshkati, Hancock, Rahimi & Dawes, 1995).The way to measure secondary-task performance is through another task include to the primary one. De Waard (1996) mentioned about the multiple-resource theory. The theory says that the largest sensitivity in secondary-task measures can be achieved if the overlap in resources is high (De Waard, 1996).According to Hancock, Vercruyssen and Rodenburg (1992), a someone must have the ability to synchronize their actions with the dynamics of differing environmental demands so that he can survive and prosper in uncertain conditions. This means that the person must have some degree of autonomy with respect to property and time.However, secondary-task measures have disadvantages to consider. According to De Waard (1996), time sharing is not very efficient if the same resources are utilized. Moreover, additional instrumentation is required in secondary-task measures. Not only tha t, but there is lack of operator acceptance. There are also possible compromises to system safety.Subjective Task MeasuresThere is much talk about the self-report measures, which is also called subjective measures. In fact, for De Waard (1996), self-report measures are positive because they can better show the real meaning of mental workload.These measures subjectivity is what makes self-report measures strong. Muckler and Seven (1992, as cited in De Waard, 1996) explained that self-report measures are strong because the awareness of the operator about the increasing effort used must give subjective measures an important role to play. Moreover, performance and effort are incorporated in self-report measures. Additionally, individual differences, operator state and attitude are also considered.Xiaoli (n.d.) said that the primary advantages of subjective task measures are high face validity, ease of application and low costs. However, there are also limitations in these measures. Fi rst is that there might be confusion of mental and physical load in rating. There might also be an exhibition of the operators inability to differentiate between external demands and actual effort or workload experienced. Second, limitations can be seen in the operators ability to introspect and rate expenditure correctly. Hancock, Brill, Mouloua and Gilson (2002) added that another disadvantage of self-report measures is that they cannot be used for online workload assessment.Physiological MeasuresAccording to De Waard (1996), physiological measures showed sensitivity to globular arousal or activation level and in some stages in information processing. One advantage of this is that physiological responses do not gather up an obvious response by the operator. Additionally, most cognitive tasks do not need overt behavior. Moreover, some of the measures can be collected continuously.Kramer (1991, cited in De Waard, 1996) showed some of the disadvantages of these measures. First is t hat there must be specialized equipment and adept expertise to be able to utilize these measures. Second is the presence of signal-to-noise ratios. Kramer furthered that in operator-system performance, the operators physiology is not directly involved, unlike in primary-task performance.Other physiological measures involved in driving are student diameter, endogenous eye blinks, blood pressure, respiration, electrodermal activity, hormone levels, event related potentials, and electromyogram.De Waard (1996) furthered that not all measures are sensitive to workload when it comes to performance. There are instances when dissociation between these measures of different categories was reported. He said that dissociation occurs between measures when they do not correspond to changes in the workload, or if there is an increase in one measure and a decrease in another.Performance is and then affected by the amount of resources invested and the demands on working memory.Hancock, Brill, Mouloua and Gilson (2002) said that although physiological measures present world(prenominal) assessments of workload, they do little to balance the demands of tasks on receptive systems. In addition, physiological measures provide little or no information about what sensory systems are most taxed.To measure mental workload, ii conferences must be considered (Gopher & Donchin, 1986, cited in De Waard, 1996). Self-report measures, physiological measures and performance measures are include in the first group. This group supposes that it is probable to achieve a global measure of mental workload. The second group includes secondary-task measures and some of the physiological measures. This group is concerned about those diagnostic procedures and has something to do with the theories of multiple resources.ReferencesDe Waard, Dick. (1996). The measurement of drivers mental workload. The Netherlands The Traffic Research Center VSC.Hancock, P.A., Brill, J.C., Mouloua, M., & Gilson, R.D . (2002). M-SWAP On-line workload assessment in aviation. Paper presented at the 12th International Symposium on Aviation psychological science. Dayton, OH.Hancock, P.A., Vercruyssen, M., & Rodenburg, G.J. (1992). The opinion of gender and time-of-day on time perception and mental workload. Current Psychology Research and Review,. 11, 203-225.Hanover College. (n.d.). Mental Workload. Retrieved October 27, 2007 from http//psych.hanover.edu/classes/hfnotes3/tsld022.htmlLuximon, A. & Goonetilleke, R. (2001). Simplified subjective workload assessment technique. Ergonometrics, 44, 229-243.Meshkati, N., Hancock, P.A., Rahimi, M., & Dawes, S.M. (1995). Techniques of mental workload assessment. In J. Wilson and E.N. Corlett, (Eds.). Evaluation of human work A pragmatical ergonomics methodology. (Second Edition), London Taylor and Francis.Xiaoli, Yi. (n.d.). Measurements of mental workload. Slide presentation. Available on http//www.slideshare.net/ESS/measurement-of-mental-workload/

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Essay

Conflict is one of the drivers for improved police squad performance. Managed tumefy, fighting can lead to better decisions, more creative ideas and higher(prenominal) quality output from the team. Managed spoiltly, it can stop teamwork and hinder individuals from achieving their personal goals. (Conflict law of closure For Team Members (n. d. ) taken from TeamTechnology. co. uk http//www. teamtechnology. com. uk/conflictresolution. html) The assignment presents a situation in which a conflict occurred and what happened. Also, the assignment discusses on what should take aim been done and which was the wronged referencey.The conflict presented is amid the cardinal ag ag aggroups of the recruits that are undergoing training in the VP-92 navy P-3 squadron. The recruits were divided into both groups for a mock designate struggle mission one was responsible for identification of the targets and informing the other group about the location of the targets and the split seco nd group was supposed to glint the targets. The problem arose when the area surrounding the vessel was foggy and the targets could non be identify clearly by the setoff group. Hence, the second group, whose performance was dependent on the depression group, could non amaze and shoot the targets.This was followed by an argument and a conflict between the both groups which was resolved by the officers. Then the writer says which side he would have chosen and why and what actions he would have taken. The conflict, however sm entirely it was, was factual and both the parties were justified and neither one is to be blamed. Title inlet to Conflict Resolution Part I The Organization The organisation that is to be discussed below is VP-92. It is navy P-3 Squadron where the navy conducts its operations. The navy besides provides training to its juvenile recruits.A Navy is the branch of a countrys soldiers forces principally designated for naval warfare, namely lake- or ocean-bo rne combat operations and tie in functions. It includes operations conducted by surface vessels (ships), submarine vessels, and seaborne aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications, training, and other fields recent developments have include space-related operations. (en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Navy) Part II The Conflict The conflict at VP-92 was between cardinal groups of the marine crew at an assignment of mock target attack mission.One group, consisting of five crew-members, was responsible for identifying targets to be hit, while the other group, also consisting of five crew men, was responsible for hitting the targets in the assigned target areas to them. The conflict arose when the group that was supposed to identify targets could not identify the targets to be hit on age out-of-pocket to the fog and mist that was blurring their visibility and making it hard for them to locate their targets. As the targets could not be place on time, the group that was supposed to strike the targets could not perform their duties on time.As a result a conflict arose between the two groups. Basically the strikers work depended on the identifiers and the second group could not perform well because identifiers had a problem with identifying the targets. The strikers could not justly strike their targets and their aim was wrong and not rightly focused. Hence, they put all the blame of their bad performance on the first group. Part third Choose a Side I choose to be on the side of the group that could not properly identify their targets due to the bad bear and the mist that was blurring their view and became a hindrance to performing well.How Was it Managed? The group that was supposed to identify the targets in the mock target attack mission, advised the other group about the weather situation. However, when they persisted that targets should be identified, the assignment was not called off. The identifiers were asked to continue with their searching, wh ich they did but spent a lot of time due to the lack of clarity of vision causes by fog. However, when the strikers could not rightly strike their targets, they blamed the identifiers for wrongly identifying their targets and also spending a lot of time on searching for targets.I think the conflict was very often genuine and there were no personal reasons for this conflict. The conflict was substantive because the group that was supposed to locate the targets to be struck could not be identified due to external factors such as the weather. Another reason whitethorn also have been the location of the ship where the fog was more and the targets were not visible. There was no negative impact on the goal growth of the organisation or even the personal/ working relationships between the two groups.Since this was a mock assignment thats aim was to train the sweet recruits in the navy to properly identify and aim their targets. In my view, the weather condition provided a flavor of the real target attack missions face by the navy. The goal of this assignment would have been achieved if both the groups became experts in their tasks in variable whether conditions. However, expertise comes with practice and experience. Hence, I think this assignment and conflict was the first step towards attaining the goal.Even though this conflict arose out of a blame game for the two groups, one blaming the weather and the other blaming the first group, the argument was purely professional and not personal. There was a heated up debate between the two groups, but this ended when the officers arrived after a few(prenominal) minutes to give their remarks. After both the groups had presented their points of view to the officers, they were told that it was a part of the navy life and the navy assignments and no particular group was to be blamed for the failure to aim the target properly. Hence, this argument did not arrive any hard feelings between the groups.

Government to Limit Use of Cars Essay

Government agencies curb been told to stop using official fomites one day a week based on their license plate subjects, according to a nonification for an dynamism-saving and emission step-down program to be implemented across the coun raise.The program, scoret of disposal efforts to shelter the environs and promote sustainable reading during the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011-15), was print on the central authoritiess official website Tuesday. fulfill to the program, the measures were in particular designed for various fields, such as enterprises and schools.Some Web intakers applauded the governments efforts, while differents questioned the feasibility of limiting the habituate of government fomites.Lian Peng, a freelance writer, wrote on his Sina Weibo microblog that it was difficult to distinguish private railway railroad autos from official ones, and the banishment would result either in drivers using two license plates, or the government buying to a greater extent(prenominal) than fomites. A pilot project for government agencies to use bicycles go out be launched. Government workers autos were overly hiked to be parked one day a week based on plate numbers.Niu Fengrui, director of the Institute for Urban and environsal Studies at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, praised the positive efforts made by the government to muffle emissions.However, such efforts would non live app bent effect, Niu told the spheric Times Tuesday.Niu suggested that the pedestal of the worry was aught supply, and the fundamental approach should be to develop technologies and suck in break up equipment to improve efficiency, as well as variety demeanorstyles and merchandise methods.Zhu Lijia, director of the public research department of the Chinese Academy of Governance, told the ground(a) Times such measures allow not actu on the wholey promote the shed light on of the official fomite system, and would not impact the core of the system . Military told to weakened emissionsThe governments efforts to save might and contract denigrative emissions confirm spread to a wise front the countrys military. The pecks Liberation Army (PLA) and armed police should work to configuration push button-efficient barracks and develop naught-saving models for logistics, using up and t come downing, said a nationwide emission-reduction think. Efforts to save elections in the military argon an authorised part of the countrys vitality-saving and emission-reduction efforts, the plan said. It lays out that the PLA result scale down administrative expenses, set up great efforts to conserve enkindle, procure environment in ally friendly ingatherings and recycle military uniforms. PLA garrisons bequeath coordinate their use of civilian vehicles with local anaesthetic governments to enhance dit efficiency. Xinhua admissionIt is possible that no invention has had as profound an effect on society as the passenger politic al machine. It did not take long by and by its introduction in the early part of this century for the auto to quickly vex the aboveboard kernel of transportation in the unite invokes, where at that place ar now 752 motor vehicles for every 1,000 populate ( innovation Almanac 211). dapple no some separate country go off match the excessive cable car use of the U.S, its not for lack of trying. pull down in China, where the use of bicycles by its citizens is legendary, the number of political machines has been doubling every five classs for the past tense 30 years (World Resources Institute, early WRI 172). yet reliance on gondola gondola cars is not without its problems&emdashthe close to obvious beingnessness straining contaminant and postcode usance. taint GeneralPollution by cars causes lung piece of asscer, respiratory problems, urban smog, and acid rain (Brown 25). By 1970, after decades without government regulation, melodic phrase calibre had get under ones skin a ripe problem. The first federal Clean Air Act was passed during the Nixon organisation to curtail the ever-increasing tot of pollution ca utilise by automobiles and industry, and Congress passed an updated version in 1990 (WRI 182). However, the Clean Air Act didnt prohibit pollution it plain defined an acceptable amount. Further, the legislation addressed exactly original airborne contaminants, while ignoring others. Perhaps to a greater extent or less signifi dirty dogtly, although mischievous air was outlawed, it quiesce exists. more(prenominal) than one-half(a) of the people in the U.S. live in aras that failed to meet federal air reference standards at least several days a year (30 Simple zippo Things You Can Do to pull round the Earth, hereafter 30 Simple Things, 11), and around 80 gazillion the Statesns live in argonas that continually fail to meet these standards (WRI 63). Despite the Clean Air Acts, the frankness is that air pollution continues to be a major public health problem. As bad as the air is in the U.S., in other countries which rent waited too long to address the pollution caused by cars, its worse. Mexico City, So Paulo, red-hot Delhi, and Bangkok be grappling with serious air problems. And such(prenominal) of that pollution is caused by private automobiles (Brown 25).Pollution Ground-Level Ozone one(a) way cars pee-pee pollution is by contrisolelying to the amount of ground- take aim ozone (not to be confused with the atmospheric ozone layer). In the atmosphere, the ozone layer shields the p loftyroadt from harmful ultraviolet light radiation rays. But on the ground, ozone is another matter, causing hazy smog and respiratory problems. close ozone pollution is caused by motor vehicles, which forecast for 72% of nitrogen oxides and 52% of reactive hydro century copys (principal components of smog) (30 Simple Things 11). The seriousness of ground-level ozone should not be unde stick aroundim ated. According to the World Resources Institute Ozone pollution has lead widespread in cities in Europe, North America, and Japan as auto and industrial emissions piss increased. Breathing ozone concentrations of 0.012 ppm&emdashlevels typical in many cities&emdashcan irritate the respiratory tract and impair lung function, causing coughing, shortness of breath, and chest pain rise overly suggests ozone exposure lowers the bodys defenses, increasing susceptibility to respiratory infections (65).Pollution LeadCars also pollute by emitting lead from lead bollocks upoline. Although the use of lead in assailoline is banned in the unify States, leaded gasoline is common in other countries. In fact, of the countries for which selective information is available, 43% use nothing but leaded gasoline. Many of the rest use at least some leaded gasoline in their energy mix. This is a definite cause for concern One of the oldest metals used by humans, lead is a cumulative neurotoxin t hat impairs brain development among children and has been connected to elevated blood pressure and resulting hypertension, heart attacks, and premature dying in adults.Emissions from vehicles is the extendedst source of lead exposure in many urban atomic number 18as (WRI 266-267). The personal effects of all this pollution on human health be unsettling. A study of U.S. cities found that mortality rates were 17-26% broad(prenominal) in cities with the dirtiest air comp ard to those with the cleanest air. Not surprisingly, the study also found cor relations between bad air and lung cancer and cardiopulmonary disease. The risks translate roughly to a two-year shorter spirit span for re side of meatnts of dirty-air cities. On a global basis, estimates of mortality over callable to outdoor air pollution range from close 0.4-1.1% of nitty-gritty yearbook deaths (WRI 63-64). In the U.S., 30,000 people die every year from automobile emissions ( cycle and Our Environment 1). Also see our separate page on lead.Pollution orbicular WarmingPerhaps regular scarier than the direct deterioration to our bodies from auto pollution is the fact that car emissions ar contributing to an overall warming of the integral p roadwayt, which could destroy the gentlemans gentlemans nutrient chain. Cars emit carbon dioxide (CO2), a heat-trapping gas. In fact, they emit a lot of it 20 pounds per gal of gas burned (NRDC 12, Zuckermann 29). atmospheric concentrations of CO2 pass on increased by 30% since preindustrial quantify, and much of that increase is directly related to the burning of fossil give notices. According to the Worldwatch Institute CO2 levels are now at their highest superman in 160,000 years, and global temperatures at their highest since the Middle Ages (Brown 26). The effects of this global warming are f seriousening rising sea levels, dying coral reefs, spreading of infectious diseases, and extreme weather conditions, including droughts, rare fore st fires, historic floods, and pixilated storms. Even more frightening, these take downts are not just predictions&emdashtheyre happening right now (Brown 26). power UseThe amount of energy used by automobiles is staggering. battery-acid of all types chronicles for more than 25% of the humannesss commercialized energy use, and motor vehicles nib for belovedly 80% of that (WRI 171). In numerical terms, the figures are hard to comprehend. The world used over a cardinal liters of motor gas in 1995. And the U.S. accounted for 46% of that bestow (WRI 266-267). In fact, Americas gasoline consumption easily outs trip ups its harvestion. The U.S. currently imports over half its crude oil colour (52%) even more than it did before the oil crises of 1973 and 1979. This dependence on foreign oil has significant stinting consequences, and many observers feel that protect our right to oil was the real reason for the U.S./Iraq war of 1991. Americans use voluminous amounts of gasolin e not just because they drive so much, but also because theyre extremely uneconomic round how they drive. The NRDC notes Most cars on the pathway carry plainly one person. In fact, we have so much extra room in our 140 gazillion cars that everyone in westbound Europe could fit in them with us.If every commuter train car in the U.S. carried just one more person, wed save eight million gallons of gas a year. The one-person-per-car scenario also greatly contributes to art congestion, which in fleck wastes even more energy&emdashwell-nigh three billion gallons of gas a year (30 Simple Things 52-53). But changing Americans habits doesnt look resemblingly any time soon, as the failure of High-Occupancy fomite (HOV) lanes makes clear. To encourage commuters to carpool, some communities have designated one lane of traffic on certain roadways as HOV lanes. Commuters can drive in this lane only if on that point are at least two people in the vehicle. The think is that commuters will want to carpool so they can ride in the uncongested HOV lane preferably than being stuck in traffic in the normal lane when riding by themselves.But as Michael Bluejay points out, these lanes dont of all time succeed in encouraging carpooling. A friend and I recently had occasion to drive through Dallas during rush hour, and I had my first luck to see how an HOV lane worked. Basically, it didnt. We passed hundreds and hundreds of single-occupant cars in the regular traffic lanes as we zoomed by in the practically-empty HOV lane. It struck me as really crazy Whenever I try to encourage people to ride bikes more and drive less, they always yammer to me close how convenient it is to drive. easy, exactly how convenient is it to sit in your car at a complete standstill, adding 30-60 minutes to your morning commute? Thats convenience? The have a go at it demonstrated to me how far people were willing to go to avoid carpooling. They were willing to sit there like morons, stuck h opelessly in traffic, for the luxury of being the only person in their vehicle. Although I was spoil that the HOV lanes didnt seem to work, I was at least pleased to relieve oneself that all those greedy motorists were being punished with even more traffic congestion, since the HOV lane meant that there was one fewer lane to hunt all those cars.SummaryAutomobiles are amenable for a tremendous amount of air pollution and wasted energy. These problems impact people all over the world, both(prenominal) motorists and non-motorists alike, by affecting their health, their economies, and their communities. Legislation to address air pollution has been only partially successful, and air quality continues to be a major concern in countries all over the world. As for energy use, one can only hope that world leaders find a better way to address this problem than fighting wars over an increasingly shrinkage supply of oil. more(prenominal) stats are available in our Car Almanac. plant Cite dBicycling and Our Environment. Austin Cycling News. Aug. 1998 1. Bluejay, Michael. HOV Lanes. Bicycling in Austin. Feb. 1998. 22 June 1999. http//BicycleAustin.info Brown, Lester R., et al. State of the World A Worldwatch Institue Report on Progress Towards a sustainable Future. New York W. W. Norton and Co., 1999. 30 Simple Energy Things You Can Do to Save the Earth. Los Angeles South California Edison, 1990. World Almanac and Book of Facts. 1996 Mahwah, NJ World Almanac Books, 1995. World Resources Institute. 1998-99 World Resources A Guide to the Global Environment. New York Oxford University Press, 1998. Zuckermann, Wolgang. End of the Road. Cambridge Lutterworth Press, 1991.Car Pollution StatisticsDriving cars effects more than air quality. Car pollution statistics point to ground pollution, resource reduction (mining and crude oil results), and health issues as other problems derived from out motorized society. Air quality is an important reason to pay attention to car poll ution, but there are other reasons too.Car pollution is considered by most people to be a decreasing problem, but its actually increasing, due to the sizable number of cars that are driven severally day. Measures are being taken to slue air pollution, including the manufacture of hybrid cars, the creation of naked environmentally friendly burn downs, and more, but those measures dont touch all of the car pollution issues. Learning most car pollution statistics can open your eyes to the myriad problems. If you realize the importance of making changes in your life and car capricious habits, therefore you can make changes to service decrease the amount of car pollution that you release into the air. * FTIR Gas AnalyzerGas righteousness and emissions monitoring by MKS Instruments On-Line Analyzerwww.ccrprocessproducts.com/FTIR *Car pollution statistics can give you the knowledge that you need to compel you to make changes in your life to lessen your impact upon the environment . Here are a few car pollution statistics that you need to be learn about and be aware(p) of * SUVs release up to forty-seven percent more car pollution than the average-sized car. * The amount of car pollution that is released from cars is much more than the amount of pollution released by a nuclear power plant. * Ozone pollution is earlier due to the pollution that is released by cars. Seventy-two percent of nitrogen oxides and lii percent of hydrocarbons, which is a component of smog, are released by cars. * The Journal of Epidemiology and universe Health published a study that suggested that most childhood cancers are caused by air pollution, which can be caused by cars and more.* There are 752 cars for every 1,000 people in the United States. * In China, the number of cars that are driven has doubled every five years for the past 30 years. * Thirty-thousand people in the United States each year die from conditions that are caused or exacerbated by car pollution. * Half of the people in the United States live in areas that fail to meet federal air quality standards at least several days a year. * Eighty million people live in areas that are continually not maintenance up to these standards. * SUVs release 28-gallons of carbon dioxide into the air for every gallon of gasoline that is used. * Car pollution has numerous effects, both physically and environmentally, like acid rain, smog, lung cancer, and respiratory problems.As you can see from the above car pollution statistics, cars have a huge impact upon the health of the citizens, the air, and the environment. That is why it is so important that we find ways to make changes in our lives to help decrease the amount of pollution that we release by driving our car. By using alternative evokes, considering hybrid cars, driving less, and more, you can help make your impact upon the world a little less harsh. Consider these car pollution statistics the next time that you get into your car. You whitethorn find that your trip is not as important as you think.Energy Consumption and the Environment wedges and Options for Personal Transportation(Revised 2-4-96)In 1973, petroleum shortages caused by the OPEC oil censor launched the worlds change nations on a search for more efficient septs, factories, and transportation systems. After two decades of attempts to economize, energy use in the residential sector is about the akin, industrial energy use is down, and transportation energy use is up. Today, we are more concerned with the other side of the coin the environmental problems and long-term sparing perils of unbridled energy consumption.Trends in Transportation Energy ConsumptionTransportation now consumes more than 20% of the worlds total primary energy and produces much of the worlds air pollution. In just 30 years, the number of cars in the world will soar from todays cd million or so, to more than one billion. Private transportation will indeed need 2-1/2 time more energ y and produce 2-1/2 times more air pollution. If global trends are projected to year 2100, the world will need 10 times more total energy, and transportation will consume 40% of this much larger pool.(1)Energy Use, Global Warming, and Climatic ChangesEnergy use and emissions trends point to significant economic, political, and complaisant problems for future generations.The greenhouse effect altogether could have devastating effects on economies. Without intervention, the buildup of greenhouse gases could reach twice the pre-industrial level as early as 2030. The resulting global warming effect could raise sea levels enough to threaten wetlands, increase coastal flooding, and accelerate coastal erosion. The Intergovernmental Panel on clime Change (IPCC) estimated that sea levels will rise an average of 6 to 20 inches by 2050. In addition, many unmanaged ecosystems will plausibly be lost. Changes in rainfall patterns will likely result in more severe droughts, more intense tropi cal storms, and ultimately, dislocations and reductions in unsophisticated output. (Despite the increased exercise buffer associated with higher(prenominal) carbon dioxide levels, the resulting climatic changes are judge to veer agricultural production to regions having less productive topsoil, which would accordingly result in diminished total yields.)About 75% of human emissions of carbon dioxide, the most important man-made greenhouse gas, is caused by the use of fossil departs.Fossil raise use has caused an imbalance in the solid grounds normal carbon cycle. Normally, biologic development absorbs carbon from the environment and then releases it back into the environment when it decays or is burned. New growth then absorbs the carbon again, and the amount of carbon in the environment remains roughly the same. Since the last ice age, the level of carbon in the atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide) has varied only about 5%. However, fossil fuel use has upset the bala nce.Over the earths history, large amounts of carbon had been removed from the environment and become locked aside beneath the surface where it was ultimately transformed into fossil fuel deposits. Since the industrial revolution, humankind has been removing these deposits, burning the fuel, and releasing the carbon into the atmosphere. The result is a speedy buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide that is unprecedented in the history of human life on earth. No one knows the precise effects, but for better or for worse, average temperatures will increase and global weather patterns will change. moderate Supplies of Traditional and In pricy EnergyNearly 40% of the worlds energy now comes from petroleum, and another 21% comes from rude(a) gas.(2) Together, these finite raw(a) resources supply about 60% of the worlds energy. If oil and natural gas consumption continued to double every 15 to 20 years as it had for the 100 years preceding 1973, the earths broad(a) original endowment of these resources would be 80% depleted in another 30 years or so. As early as 1970, spic-and-span oil and gas discoveries had dramatically declined and have remained low. In the 80s, experts estimated that U.S. reserves would last about 35 years at existing pumping rates. More recently, estimates have been revised downward. Considering known reserves and estimated undiscovered deposits, U.S. oil will be depleted in about 10-12 years at inclose pumping rates. And radical-fangled finds will make little difference on a worldwide scale.A new Prudhoe Bay discovery would provide the world with about six months oil supply, and a new North sea find would equate to about three years supply.(3)Each year, the demand for oil is increasing by an amount equal to Kuwaits entire annual production, and for the first time, OPEC has no substantial excess production capacity. Because of declining and more pricey-to-recover petroleum reserves, prices are expected to begin rising in the mid(prenomi nal) to late 90s, and continue to rise thereafter.(4)Alternative FuelsThe challenge of alternative fuels is earlier an economic one. Although the volumetric comprise of methanol (made from natural gas) and ethanol (made from corn) is on par with gasoline, a car running on ethanol consumes 50 percent more fuel and an ethanol car consumes about twice the fuel per grayback inciteed, in comparison to a car running on gasoline. Consequently, per-mile fuel be are greater. Natural gas is less costly on a per-mile basis than todays gasoline, but supplies are finite and the high cost of natural gas vehicle systems mainly offset the lower cost of the fuel itself. Although environmentally friendly, total heat is both technically and economically challenging due to its high production costs and the difficulty of storing hydrogen on-board vehicles.Alternative fuels do not save primary energy, but they are cleaner than gasoline. Carbon dioxide levels remain indispensablely unaltered when alcohol fuels are made from renewable biological feedstocks.Renewable FuelsRenewable biomass fuels, such as ethanol and methanol, whitethorn become economically competitive with petroleum motor fuels by year 2000. But much remains indefinite about the worlds capacity to produce biomass in quantities competent to meet future energy needs. Already, about half the worlds solar energy captured by photosynthesis is used by humans, primarily for food and forest products. Total primary energy use in the U.S. amounts to about 31 times more energy than is harvested as crops and forest products, and about 40% more energy than is captured by all forms of U.S. vegetation, combined.Considering all agricultural crops, forests, lawns, gardens and wild vegetation, the energy contained in annual U.S. vegetation growth totals about 54 quads (quadrillion BTUs), and in year 1990 total U.S. primary energy consumption amounted to around 81 quads.Because of limitations in water supplies, nutrients, and arable lands, the amount of energy obtainable from the worlds agricultural resources is limited. Even in the U.S., which has more arable land per capita than any other nation on earth, it may be in possible to produce biomass fuels in quantities sufficient for the nations energy needs. According to Dr. David Pimentel, Cornell University, the U.S. has the agricultural capacity to support a world of about 200 million on biomass energy only if per capita energy consumption were reduced to half its infix level. Worldwide, the ability of the ecosystem to sustain a population at an equivalent of U.S. consumption in the 90s is probably limited to about two billion people, or trine of the existing population.(5) Unfortunately, U.S. population is expected to reach 500 million in 60 years, and worldwide population will reach 12-15 billion near the end of the 21st century.Economic ImplicationsThe world is entering a power point of escalating consumption, declining reserves of traditional energy feedstocks, higher energy costs, and increasing environmental stress, which could have vast economic, political, and social ramifications. As environmental limitations are approached, ecosystems become more unstable. In the future, ecosystem management and environmental maintenance will become more the responsibility of humans rather than nature. The economic impact of higher energy costs will be compounded as the cost of environmental fortress and repair is included in the fundamentally higher cost of energy. As a result, varying degrees of negative economic effects are likely.Ultimately, a fundamental restructuring of the way in which energy is produced and consumed, as well as its value and role in the providence, prerequisite make it, regardless of the particular energy technology. Reducing the energy intensity of industrialized societies is the most environmentally sound and least economically harmful strategy.Energy use must be constrained if the connectd proble ms of energy supplies, environmental degradation, and economic well-being are to be solved.Transportations RoleTransportation is natural to modern economies, and that sector is almost totally dependent on oil as a source of energy. The ability to freely and inexpensively move goods and people is a fundamental link in the economic chain. Today, large changes in the price or supply of oil send saccade waves rolling through the worlds financial institutions. Transportation is the most rapidly growing consumer of the worlds energy, and the largest share of transportations energy goes to passenger travel. In develop countries, passenger travel accounts for about 70% of the total energy consumed by transportation.The Automobiles Impact on Transportation Energy ConsumptionThe automobile is responsible for around 90% of the energy consumed for travel in the U.S., about 80% in Western Europe, and nearly 60% in Japan.(6) Today, there are approximately 400 million cars in the world, and so metime around year 2030 the worlds automobile population will surpass one billion.If driving habits remain unchanged, cars will have to become nearly three times more energy-efficient by 2030 just to maintain that sectors present consumption. If energy use trends are projected to year 2100, transportation would then have to be twenty times more energy-efficient, which roughly equates to 400 mpg cars (automobile fleet-average fuel economy is now about 20 mpg).Cars in the U.S. have become more energy-efficient over the past two decades, but other developed countries are losing ground and actually consuming more fuel per passenger mile traveled.(7) Europeans are turning more to private cars, and as a result transportation trends and energy use patterns are converge with those of the U.S. But the greatest increase in transportation energy consumption will occur in the ontogeny world. By year 2010, India is expected to have 36 times more cars than in 1990. China will have 91 times more cars, Mexico will have 2-1/2 times more cars, and Eastern Europe and the countries of the former U.S.S.R. will probably double their automobile population.The rest of the developing world will experience a 300% increase over the same period. In comparison, the number of cars in the U.S., Canada, Western Europe, and Japan will have grown by only 12%-15%.(8)The Automobiles Role in Atmospheric PollutionIn a typical U.S. city, motor vehicle emissions account for 30%-50% of hydrocarbon, 80%-90% of carbon monoxide, and 40%-60% of nitrogen oxide emissions. Cars and light trucks are responsible for about 20% of the nations carbon dioxide, which is a powerful greenhouse gas. Motor vehicle carbon emissions are basically proportional to total fuel consumed.(9) Unfortunately, in the coming decades the greatest growth in the automobile population will occur in developing countries which can least afford clean technologies. The United Nations Fund for state Activities estimates that, because o f rapidly increasing automobile populations, developing countries will be emitting 16.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually by year 2025, or about four times as much as developed nations.Problems are InterdependentTransportation energy consumption and environmental health are interrelated issues. Relieving the demand side of the equation simultaneously relieves the rest. If vehicle fuel economy were doubled, for example, transportation emissions would be essentially cut in half, even if there were no improvement in emission wangle technologies. If petroleum consumption were cut in half, reserves would be effectively doubled, even though no new deposits had been discovered. With a doubling of vehicle fuel economy, the same number of vehicle miles could be supported on half the investment in exploratory drilling, half the recovery, refining, and delivery expenses, and half the damage to the environment. The same inter descents would exist with alternative energy sources, regardl ess of the particular technology.Although each problem, from emissions and resource burdens to economic factors, may yield to their own targeted efforts, alleviating the fundamental problem simultaneously reduces the entire spectrum of associated difficulties.The Automobile as a Transportation trunkMass transit is often mentioned as an alternative to private cars, but the most effective mass transit system in the world is the automobile. An automobile transportation system provides schedules and routes that are tailored to individual needs. In addition, users individually purchase, maintain, and fuel the transportation device, and only the relatively inexpensive roadways acquire public funding.The primary tradeoffs for this otherwise ideal system are high energy intensity and high emissions.(10) However, if the automobile is to survive as an economically sound and viable transportation system its energy consumption and harmful emissions must be reduced.The Potential Impact of New TechnologiesToday, automobiles operate at approximately 15% efficiency, which means that about 15% of the energy contained in the fuel is delivered to the drive wheels as useful work.According to the best estimates, it may be possible to double automobile energy efficiency (using naturalized powertrains) to about 30% before we run out of ideas. At 30% powertrain efficiency a 20- to 25-mpg sedan would then achieve fuel economy of 40 to 50 mpg. Advanced power systems and reduced vehicle roadloads are necessary in order to make significant gains in automobile energy intensity.Electric cars produce significantly fewer harmful emissions, and they save about 10% to 30% in primary energy (over the entire energy chain). Advanced fuel prison cell vehicles using methanol reformed on-board into hydrogen may be as much as 2-1/2 times more efficient than todays cars. Practical automobile fuel cells, however, present enormous economic and technical challenges.In the final analysis, technology totally may not be able to solve the worlds energy problems partly because of the limitations of technology, but primarily because of the economic realities of alternative energy systems.And even the most optimistic estimations of the energy savings obtainable with advanced-technology systems still fall short of accommodating the long-term forecasts of transportations energy needs.A reduction in personal transportation energy intensity is essential in order to reduce the economic impact and technical hurdle of new energy systems and more costly energy supplies. Energy conservation is the most economically sound and environmentally friendly option.Factors That Affect Personal-Transportation Energy ConsumptionTransportation energy consumption depends on the mass being transported and the surmount it is transported. The technologies employed determine the efficiency at which the mass is transported. Consequently, energy consumption can be reduced by developing more efficient transpo rtation technologies, or by decrease the transported mass and/or the distance traveled.The factors of distance and mass are determined largely by social and economic structures, and by vehicle layout and configuration.In order to reduce the distance and mass factors, Paulo Solaria envisions self-sufficient cities like Arcosanti in Arizona in which automobiles are no longer needed. Telecommuting, or working at home and transferring information, rather than people, is another approach designed to reduce overall distance and mass.With revised architectures, and new business and social structures, it is possible to significantly reduce societys transportation energy needs. The difficulties of such revisions arise from the economic burdens of restructuring cities, and the psychological resistance to large scale changes in social and business structures. The technologies, however, are largely available or just on the horizon.Reducing the transported mass, individually of the distance tr aveled, can also fundamentally reduce transportations energy requirements. Moreover, mass reduction need not affect travel habits, social and business structures, or the architecture of cities. The opportunity for a large reduction in mass becomes apparent when one considers that the vehicle itself is responsible for approximately 92% of the transported mass, while the occupants account for only 8%.(11) Most of the automobiles energy is consumed to transport itself.Mass reduction alone can save more energy than the most advanced powertrain concepts.Matching Vehicle Size to Trip RequirementsFrom the traditional perspective, the identified problem contributing to the automobiles high energy intensity is low vehicle occupancy. Transportation energy intensity is a measure of the energy consumed per passenger mile traveled. When a vehicle is lightly loaded, energy intensity goes up because the vehicle consumes about the same amount of energy (fuel), regardless of the number of occupants. direct large, multi-passenger cars with only one or two occupants is therefore considered the most wasteful habit affecting the worlds consumption of transportation energy.Worldwide, automobiles operate, on average, with about 1.6 to 1.8 occupants. In the U.S., approximately 87% of all automobile trips occur with two or fewer occupants. The average for work related trips is 1.1 occupants per vehicle. One- and two-occupant trips account for approximately 83% of all vehicle miles traveled in the U.S.(12)If the same number of travelers were condensed into half the cars (car pooling), total automobile energy consumption would be reduced by half. But condensing occupants into fewer vehicles essentially defeats the automobiles primary benefit.Trips must then accommodate the needs of other occupants, and the automobile is no longer a private and personal means of transportation.Traditionally, occupancy-rate is considered a fashional by-product and therefore outside the bounds of vehicle technology. However, if the identified problem were redefined, it can easily become a simple technical problem. If the definition were inappropriate vehicle size (rather than underutilization of large cars), the final result would then be to resize vehicles so they more closely match trip requirements. Since one- and two-occupant trips predominate, it course follows that a category of smaller vehicles designed for one- and two-occupant local and commuting trips would be beneficial.Low-Mass Vehicle SafetySmall, lightweight cars are ordinarily associated with an increased risk of harm. Traffic accident statistics generally support the relationship between vehicle size and injury/fatality rates, with the potential for harm increasing in proportion to the decrease in vehicle size. (The expulsion is in Japan, where a special category of lightweight kei cars actually have a lower fatality rate than conventional large cars.) But with better vehicle designs, historical data can quickly become outmoded.Cars built today are four times safer than vehicles built in 1969, and they are approximately 10% smaller and 20% lighter. This is due primarily to improved sentry go engineering and modern safety systems.Although occupant protection becomes more challenging as vehicle size is reduced, it is technically feasible to produce significantly smaller and lighter vehicles that have a high degree of safety. Advanced hard shell concepts designed to increase low-mass vehicle safety are already under development in Switzerland. This new approach utilizes a relentless exterior that is largely identical to the rigid passenger compartment of conventional cars. During a collision, the rigid exterior of the smaller car causes the less rigid deformation zone of the larger car to yield and absorb energy. Passenger ride-down space (for deceleration) in the low-mass car is provided inside the vehicle, rather than by the traditional exterior deformation zone.Occupant deceleration is co ntrolled by elastic restraints and air bags. (13)Vehicle use patterns and operating environment are also important. Cars that operate primarily in the urban environment do not necessarily have to match the crashworthiness of larger cars in order to provide equally safe transportation.New Products and New Market Appeals The Giant Oil Well Under DetroitMarket positioning, the implied messages in a products report and advertising appeals, can capitalize on todays environmental and energy concerns, and ultimately have a powerful effect on energy consumption and pollution. The necessary consumer motivations and interests already exist. A shift in thinking that disengages manufacturers and consumers alike from the association of size and mass in relation to value in automobile design is an essential part of reducing transportations energy consumption.Significantly smaller and lighter cars, both electrical and conventionally powered, are normally envisioned as cheap, underpowered, and u nsafe vehicles that have little appeal. Once this premise is accepted, vehicle attributes consistent with the vision naturally emerge and an outline of market potential, profitability, and even vehicle styling and safety then follows suit according to the core idea.These details can quickly change when the vehicle and the market are seen from a different perspective.By adopting a new perspective on automobile design, new marketing opportunities and new product ideas can begin to take shape. By emphasizing innovative safety features, visually impressive driver information systems, advanced vehicle control and crash avoidance systems, and attractive vehicle layouts and styling, smaller urban cars and commuter cars can emerge as safe, sellable, and even superior, transportation products. Innovative product packaging and marketing appeals are essential for a successful musical passage to electric urban cars and fuel-efficient commuter cars.Despite todays green orientation, forfeiture and conservation are not especially marketable attributes. New vehicle types must satisfy consumers complex psychological needs while challenge to their broad social concerns. Energy conservation and environmental protection must be positioned as an upscale product attribute, rather than as a necessary sacrifice in the name of economic and environmental health.Energy conservation and emissions reduction are not primary consumer benefits. When manufacturers address environmental concerns with attractive new vehicle themes that satisfy consumers psychological needs, a marketable new category of products will have emerged, and passenger-travel energy consumption could be reduced by nearly two-thirds.A Sustainable Paradigm for a fully Industrialized WorldAlternative cars alone will not create a system for long-term sustainability with the expected populations. Although transportation will be tomorrows largest single energy consumer (as much as 40% in the long term), combined industri al and residential needs will account for a larger portion of societys total energy needs.Future generations will probably have to adapt to more expensive energy, and use the worlds resources more prudently. This does not necessarily point to a world of stifling scarcity, but more to a new sense of responsibility, and a new paradigm for product design and the lifestyles that interrelate to form the overall production/consumption/pollution matrix.Changes in attitudes and behavior patterns can have an enormous impact on the cost to the ecosystem in resources and pollution. Population control and new business and social structures are essential and new technologies are needed as well.Todays developed economies, which account for only one-fourth of the worlds inhabitants, have been fortunate to have abundant and cheap fossil energy supplies to fuel their transition into an industrialized world. In a sense, todays developed societies are resembling to yesterdays pioneers, blazing the te chnology trail to a new frontier of sufficiency and sustainablity for the worlds future community of developed nations.Abundant and clean energy from nuclear fusion, along with fuel cell cars and rapid-recharging, extended-range, battery-electric cars, are probably the best hopes for meeting long-term transportation and energy needs. And new frontiers must be pioneered in attitudes and values, which ultimately convert to resource consumption and environmental degradation as they guide behavior. Just as alternative cars do not necessarily imply dull product design or reduced transportation quality, new values and social structures do not necessarily imply compromised lifestyles.